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" freedom, or independence, it means (strictly speaking) the lack of opposition (As opposed, I mean external impediments of motion) and can be applied to irrational creatures and inanimate no less than rational. Because of anything attached or surrounded so as not to move but within a given space by the opposition of some external body, we say that is not free to go further. The same happens with all living creatures while they are imprisoned or in captivity, limited by walls or chains; and water while restrained by dams or canals, when otherwise scatter over a larger area. We tend to then say that such things are not at liberty to move as they would without these external impediments. But when the barrier to the movement is in the constitution of the thing itself does not usually say that it lacks the freedom, but the power to move, as when a stone lies still, or a man is tied to his bed by illness.

And according to this proper and generally accepted sense of the word, a free man is he who in things by force or ingenuity can do is not hindered in doing his will. But when the words free and liberty are applied to things other than bodies committed an abuse, because it is not subject to movement is not subject to impairment. And so, when it says (for example) that the way is clear does not indicate freedom in this way, but in whom there walk without stopping. [...] Finally, the use of the word free will could not infer any freedom of will, desire or inclination, but the freedom of man, which is not to find any high lead when out what has the will, desire or inclination to do [...]

Freedom and necessity are compatible. As with water, not only freedom but need to move down the channel, and occurs in actions undertaken voluntarily by men, who come from his will proceed from liberty, and yet come from the need because every act of human freedom and all desire and inclination come from any cause, and that from another in a continuous chain (whose first link is in the hands of God, first of all causes). Thus, for those who could see the connection of causes, be expressed the need for all voluntary actions of men .

Thomas Hobbes, "Leviathan .

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Introduction to the thought of Karl Marx (VI)

( Parts 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 )

6) The "historical materialism." crash of capitalism and establishment of communism.

Since the reality experienced by human beings is for Marx as for Hegel, a product of the action of the dialectical laws, history is always to achieve a goal, overcoming the contradictions of earlier stages. Thus, the course of historical events as necessary, so now all suffering and discomfort is inevitable and unavoidable, so that the future will provide us the solution to our problems. This solution will only be possible, as already stated, when take place the replacement of the current capitalist mode of production by a communist in the removal of inequalities between social classes (or, rather, the disappearance of the same social class) , which behave, claimed Marx, overcoming of forms of alienation that are at the root of our ills and misfortunes.

Marx argued that the social revolution ends up being a reality, imposed when there are conflicts inherent in the capitalist system itself, between the forces of production, ie, the working masses, and the relations of production (the relationship between workers and owners .) Given that these relationships lead to inequality, it creates a disruption in the infrastructure, to be a deep economic disparity between the two factions, which eventually turn determine changes in the superstructure and its components (system ideological, political and social .)

have been different production relations throughout history. In fact, for Marx is precisely such differing production systems which has led to the historical stages (and not vice versa). In any of the existing to the times of Marx ruled classes, but thanks to the communism that segregation be eradicated. The three previous modes of production were:

a) slavery (slave society), ruled by the masters, dominating slaves, who are merely the means or instruments.

b) Feudalism (feudal) society, ruled by the lords and their servants and vassals who pay homage. The earth works servant, but is owned by the feudal lord.

c) capitalism (capitalist society): the current (both in Marx's time as today, but with shades). The ruling class is the bourgeoisie (or the owners of the means of production), and dominated the proletariat class.

Finally, Marx predicts the emergence of communism after the collapse of capitalism, where there will be no classes and the means of production belong to the State. The inevitable collapse of capitalism, Marx argues, because in the first place a system that only seeks to achieve economic benefit to the employer can not maintained for a long time. This is because in order to maximize the benefit is required to produce the lowest possible cost, which is using increasing amounts of machinery and the fewer workers better, something only possible in large companies and corporations. Consequently, both the proletariat (as will to swell the ranks of the unemployed, or have to work a lot of time) and small entrepreneurs, absorbed and neutralized by the larger companies will see their discontent with economic disadvantage and the chances of work. To eradicate this situation will be essential unity of the proletariat, the bourgeoisie demanding higher wages and less stringent schedules or, in extreme case scenario, the same social defeat.

Thus, it is the same capitalist system who will self-destruct, a product of social injustice that results from the different classes and a set of laws inherent in such a system, including, for example, the law downward trend benefit. If capitalism seeks to maximize profits, will be necessary to lower wages and increase production as much as possible. But offer less money to producers and labor means less income for them, so that demand will fall as more financial resources will be lower. Therefore, the benefits decrease and the company can borrow, or even in bankruptcy, destroy capitalism itself.

Furthermore find the law of increasing pauperization or, in other words, the growing number of large monopolies or dominant business groups that offer ever-lower prices and stifle the medium and small businesses, where owners are forced to close because they can not compete with them on equal terms, becoming proletarians themselves or offering even lower wages for scarce workers, resulting in discontent. In this situation

Marx advocated that the proletarian class begin to become aware of their situation and begin a process of revolution against the injustices of the bourgeoisie. Although it possesses the means of repression and power to prevent this revolution, all social class is over the other depends on them for survival, because it is their job, the proletariat in this case, which sustains . Therefore, the union of the working classes eventually oust the bourgeoisie from its privileged position, and will then will start a temporary "dictatorship of the proletariat." This phase will consist of a stranglehold on the working class, acquiring the power of society to restore a political and economic order in which private property will definitely be abolished, social classes end up being neutralized and the means of production belong entirely to the state, which possess resources and procedures to establish a communist order.

After this stage, disappear once the various degrees of class between workers will be organized into large cooperatives where everything produced will be for everyone. Each person will bring his work and his action based on their skills, and receive the group in terms of what you need. So reads the maximum Marxist "from each according to his abilities, to each according to their needs. " The collectivization of the means of production, the abolition of private property and class distinctions, the complete eradication of all forms of alienation that plague human life, identification between producer and product, and the reality of equality between workers allow disappearance of the prehistoric state that was mired in humans and we enter the truly historic step for mankind.

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" can say that if the postulate of determinism is valid, then the future will be accounted for in terms of the past, and this means that if one knew enough the past, would be able to predict the future. But in that case, what will happen in the future is already decided. And how can say that I'm free? What will happen will happen, and nothing I do can stop it. If determinism is correct, I am hopeless prisoner of fate.

But what is meant by saying that the future course of events is already decided? If what is meant is that someone has ordered it, then the statement is false. But if all it means is that in principle it is possible to deduce a number of particular facts of the past, together with appropriate general laws, then though this is true, it does not, ultimately, that I am the prisoner of fate, not choice. Does not even imply that my actions do not introduce any difference to the future, because they are causes, as well as effects, so that, if they were different, the consequences would be different. The implication is that my behavior can be predicted, but to say that my behavior can be predicted not to say that I am acting under constraint. Actually it is true that I can not escape my destiny if it is understood that this does not mean they'll do what I do. But this is a tautology, is exactly what a tautology is going to happen what will happen. And tautologies as they do not prove anything about the freedom of the will .

Alfred J. Ayer, "Philosophical Essays", Planeta-Agostini, Barcelona, \u200b\u200b1986.

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Freedom and Determinism Introduction to the Thought of Karl Marx (V)

( First, Second, Third and Fourth Party )

5) infrastructure and superstructure.

For Marx human liberation, final emancipation and eradication of the various alienations that grips are only possible, as already said, if you remodel the social and economic circumstances in which they live. Modifying these situations may emerge a new man, but this can be processed root structure that conforms to the same society. This, in the eyes of Marx, is divided into two major sections: the infrastructure and superstructure.



A) INFRASTRUCTURE

corresponds to the economic structure of society, that is, the way how to sort the different ways to meet the material life of individuals. Is determined by:

- productive forces: those elements that are required for procure the products of a society at a specific time. Productive forces are obvious natural resources to which they have access to (and, at different times are different due to new techniques to obtain them [eg coal, oil]) and all instruments, machinery, accumulated knowledge, skills, labor, etc.

- Relations of production: those that are set among individuals according to the hierarchical position of each within the production system. Can lead to relations of subordination or domination, for example, and respect to those responsible for the means of production (businesses, presidents, directors, etc..) and those who provide their productive (proletariat).

Based on how to blend these two elements of the infrastructure of all production system we can observe the creation of different types of society, which changes over time. Even Marx were three types, principally ("slave", "feudal" and "capitalist", discussed in the next installment in this series), which would add Communism

B) SUPERSTRUCTURE
Meanwhile
The superstructure means, within Marxism, the set of institutions and systems of social, legal and political and forms of consciousness (whether religious, artistic or philosophical) specific to each production system and are conditioned by it. Examine them.

- ideological superstructure: the form the body of beliefs, ways of thought and ideas of each society. Expressions are religious, scientific, philosophical and artistic.

- social superstructure : corresponds to the classic "class divide", a system of social organization whose features are related to the place in the productive system, as we know, are divided into dominant and dominated (Or owners and productive forces).

- legal and political superstructure, as is the way political power is organized and available
law society. As we have seen, Marx believed, not every type of society generated a specific legislative and political power, but were these elements that determine the appearance of a form of society, all of which resulted finally in a unique economic structure, adapted precisely that political and legislative power. In other words, they are, as always, under the reins of the ruling classes (owners, managers, etc.), Which end up directing and molding the entire system of laws and policies for their own protection and expansion.

mention, then a text Morató Jordi Cortes (" Herder Dictionary of Philosophy") regarding the relationship between infrastructure and superstructure, " To the extent that the superstructure is dependent on the real economic base, that is, productive relations, the superstructure is established as the dominant ideology, that is, as the ideology of the ruling class in the mode of production that engenders. This term is used by Marx's "Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, in the context of a general and abbreviated formulation of his conception of historical materialism. Should therefore be understood as a general formulation, abbreviated hence the controversies that have arisen regarding whether the economic base determines completely or only 'last resort', the superstructure, or to what extent changes the superstructure may determine changes in economic structure, are relative, however, and should be considered Marxist theory as a whole. However, Engels said that "ultimate" must explain the full range of legal and political institutions, and representations of religion, philosophy and ideological characteristics of each era, from the infrastructure. But in a letter to J. Bloch, Engels himself qualifies this determination "ultimate", which is not merely an economic determinism, noting the appearance of interaction between the two bodies: the infrastructure and superstructure . "

But Marx is not limited to: " model production of material life determines the general character of the processes of social, political and spiritual ." It thus appears that although both the infrastructure and superstructure to object dialectically, to reach a new status of social change (This is what Marx himself admits), always follow the direction of the same point (economic system) and goes to the same goal (the ideological system, social and political). Without a change in that, it is impossible to conceive their radical transformation.

(continued)